theodicy in buddhism

Buddhists attempt to craft … The most important in Buddhism is the action, Kamma. For theodicy – the explanation of why bad things happen to good people – is not concerned with the future; it is about explaining the present or even the past, why bad things are happening to good people right now or happened to them before, and (if one’s theodicy relies on karma) explaining this as a result of one’s past actions. Buddha's. Buddhists often challenges Christians with this question: if there is all-knowing and omniscient God the creator and ruler, then why is He not responsible for controlling the sin of His creature Adam? Other than freewill defense, there is no easy answer to this important question. And if we are going to bear arms, as some pastors and lawmakers suggest, then he who bears should be willing to step deep into the level of Theodicy, and more so, into the depth of pain and … Second, I want to respond to the Buddhist doctrine of the dualistic dependent co-origination of good and evil. the Hindu doctrine of kharma (see CASTE). Your email address will not be published. Through the _____, the Hindu is assured that if called on to carry out what appear to be evil actions associated with his or her caste, no evil karma will attach to such actions. I argue that God created humankinds—Adam and Eve with freewill. The beginningless consciousness of luminous space gave rise to this evolving universe and from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved . In Buddhism, there is no doctrine of theodicy for two main reasons. But when we engage a Buddhist doctrine of karma with the Christian notion of theodicy, we find more divergences. Usually Buddhists do not claim that any buddha is omnipotent. Buddhist doctrine of karma challenges Christian doctrine of omniscient God on the one hand and enhances a Christian doctrine of human freewill on the other. Every action produces its effect and the pleasant and painful consequences cannot be escaped until one finds enlightenment and release. How could a holy and loving God who is in control of all things allow evil to exist? Buddhism considers these three problems in two different angles, philosophically and religiously. The effort to answer questions of this sort is commonly referred to as theodicy. If you can improve it, please do. Theodicy in Christianity and Buddhism essays and term papers available at echeat.com, the largest free essay community. As used by WEBER, the concept refers to religious doctrines which legitimate social inequalities, or see purpose in evil, or promise compensation for suffering, e.g. More specifically, I shall provide an account of the concept that takes its logical aspects seriously into consideration as well as satisfies the basic intuitions philosophers of religions have had about it. I must respond to this Buddhist doctrine. The closer Buddhists come to portraying the Buddha as a being who knows all things, can do all things and responds to the suffering of all beings, the closer they come to describing an impossible being. The Buddhist tradition is centered on understanding why people suffer and how humans can be released from the sufferings of the world. the Hindu doctrine of kharma (see CASTE). Theodicy and the Buddha. Put new text under old text. Theodicy is meant here in Max Weber’s general sense of an explanation that make the injustices of life intelligible and accounts for evil in the world (see Weber, M. ). and theodicy are very different, one cannot examine evil and theodicy in Hindu-ism from a Christian perspective. This theodicy of grace not only confronts Buddhist doctrine of karma, but also transforms it. Learn how your comment data is processed. Pursue this awareness with your might: 3:14). Christians believe that the monotheistic God is the only personal Creator who creates everything out of nothing (Gen. 1). Buddhists believe if God exists, there is no evil, but since evil exists, there is no God. That issue is how one all-powerful God can be deemed just given the state of Israel, his people, in the world? The punishment theodicy attempts to explain the existence of evil in terms of punishment: since God or the moral order is perfectly just, subjects are punished for wrongs committed in the past. Special Divine Action SDA Profs. The second one is a free-will response to karma and sin. This monotheistic God is the first cause who is immanent in creation and is transcendent in His power. Buddha was concerned with questions about: Old age Sorrow Death _____ theodicy is summarized in the Four Noble Truths. First, Buddhism has no notion of a monotheistic God whose goodness must be justified against the problem of … Theodicy has been listed as a level-5 vital article in an unknown topic. Zoroastrism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism). Since time and space is beginningless and endless, there is no personal creator at the beginning and no judge at the end. Zoroastrism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism). In contrast to this, Christians believe the primordial goodness of the world and the original righteousness of creature Adam. Rather my aim is to make sense of human freewill more practically. It is through this, we must approach other sufferings. They consider time and space to be beginningless and endless in samsara. Vodou scholars have either reject both concepts as if they only belong to the Abrahamic religions or Asian religious traditions such as Buddhism. Willet describes theodicy as the attempt to answer questions concerning the overwhelming amount of evil in the world and how one can “reconcile the belief of a good god with the existence of evil.” He notes that these questions of theodicy have been unique to the notion of a Christian God. Other- worldly theodicy is the form of theodicy that appears to be the most common among some great religions, such as Christianity, Islam, and some Mahayana Buddhism schools, where evil and suffering for life is necessary for a life after death in a heaven. "Rethinking The Problem of Theodicy in Haitian Vodou" In contemporary Vodou scholarship, the notion of theodicy and the opposing binary of good and bad remains unfortunately an unexplored terrain. But even if it could be shown that theodicy was the core concern of non-Buddhist karma (which, again, I don’t think it can), that wouldn’t matter unless we could show that that was actually true for Buddhists. True. When Waking Up is Falling Asleep, "The Church supports the use of vaccinations", The GOP's Double Standard on Christianity, The Soul of Gospel Music Explored in New Netflix Series "Voices of Fire", Seven Ways to Think About Christian Mysticism. Such a personification will not be rejected, for in the discourses developed by the religious theodicies of the world religions, the figure of "the Devil" plays a major role. The first asks how we can get out of suffering, and the second says that a good and just life is rewarded. This theodicy of grace not only confronts Buddhist doctrine of karma, but also transforms it. God may command Adam and Eve to obey Him, but He does not coerce them. Buddhism emphasizes doing one thing at a time. Observing a Week of Remembrance and Honor of Native People In Fayetteville,... What Is the Purpose of Spiritual Gifts, and How Do You Discover Yours? The Buddhist tradition is centered on understanding why people suffer and how humans can be released from the sufferings of the world. Yet, Christian notion of Adam's sin as the cause for the problem of evil and death is analogous to Buddhist doctrine of karmas as the source for suffering. For Buddhist cosmology, biological evolution presents no problem at all: natural history and spiritual history are two sides of the same coin. Theodicy means justifying God's deeds within the Torah's theology. The first one is a monotheistic response to the Buddhist doctrine of karma and anatta. The purpose of the essay was to sho… I struggle with this while I'm using my phone. That is Buddhist point of view. It analyses the beginning section of the main body of text - the section, that is, that outlines the major theoretical structure of the work1 - in terms of a problem that has been of particular concern in western theology. Buddhist Views on Theodicy Unlike in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam where the divine justice and its association with evil and suffering are highly apprehended, Buddhism does not give much concern about such perspective. The Augustinian theodicy asserts that God created the world ex nihilo (out of nothing), but maintains that God did not create evil and is not responsible for its occurrence. The idea that the world is initially good is justified with what God said, "it was very good," (Gen. 1:31) when He saw everything He created. Theodicy is the study of the problem of evil in the world. But being able to do more than most people can do is still a long way from being able to do anything at all. Theodicy (/ θ iː ˈ ɒ d ɪ s i /), in its most common form, attempts to answer the question why a good God permits the manifestation of evil.Theodicy addresses the evidential problem of evil by attempting “to make the existence of an All-knowing, All-powerful and All-good or omnibenevolent God consistent with the existence of evil” or suffering in the world. Karma judges everyone's deeds and thoughts from the beginning to the end. Everything is dependent co-origination. In fact, due to the theological differences be- tween the two religious perspectives, the two come to very different conclusions about evil and theodicy. That is, there was no one for whom the Buddha did not care, no one whose suffering he did not want to eliminate, no one whose good fortune did not bring him joy. In the words of Milton’s famous preface to Paradise Lost, theodicy means, to “justify the ways of God to men” (John Milton, Paradise Lost 1:25–26). Were the Buddhists in danger of making the Buddha impossible to the same degree that Hume and Mackie argued that traditional Christian conceptions of God are impossible? The Buddha is often portrayed as having extraordinary powers. There are two schools of thought regarding the concept of Buddha himself. In Tibetan Buddhism it is known as Tsethar; whilst in China it was known as 放生 (Fàngshēng). How Awake Are We? Karma is the only impersonal judge from the origin to the end of good and evil. Whether or not God foreknows the sin or fall of Adam is out of our discussion in part because such claim is abstract. Theodicy in Christianity and Buddhism essays and term papers available at echeat.com, the largest free essay community. Human Freewill Response to Karma and Sin. The fruit thereof. This apologetic paper will argue that the problem of evil is not contradictory to the existence of God. The Babylonian Theodicy, written around 1000 BCE, is a poem and philosophical dialog between two friends and equals, one who was abandoned as a child by parents who then died, and the other who says suffering and death is common to all.. On the Concept of Theodicy. Through the _____, the Hindu is assured that if called on to carry out what appear to be evil actions associated with his or her caste, no evil karma will attach to such actions. 1. Another definition of theodicy is the vindication of divine goodness and providence in view of the existence of evil. In previous units we have talked about some of the metaphysical issues that Buddhist philosophers discussed in connection with the doctrines of divine creation of which they were aware. Square Enix’s 2001 video game Final Fantasy X focuses on the control and deception that plays out through the theodicy of Yu Yevon, a religion based on teachings of Yevon (Sylvia, 2016).The player becomes the character Tidus, who has time traveled into the unrecognizable future. High theodicy, God all knowing, all powerful, all loving o maintain properties of God o free will, best of all possible worlds, soul making defences for why an all mighty God allows evil. Recall that his vows had the power to elevate people to a celestial realm of bliss, but even Amitābha could not prevent the karma of the five especially heinous actions from ripening as rebirth in a hell realm. This is the talk page for discussing improvements to the Theodicy article. In previous units we have talked about some of the metaphysical issues that Buddhist philosophers discussed in connection with the doctrines of divine creation of which they were aware. theodicy assumes in the Chinese Buddhist text the Awakening of Faith in the Great Vehicle (Ta-sheng ch'i-hsin lun). An other- worldly paradise compensates for present suffering according to Shi’i’s movement and belief of a future reward. There is no first cause. Zugang kaufen; Hilfe; Info; Kontaktieren Sie uns; Cookies; Enzyklopädien | Textausgaben Theodicy and divine motivation. Karma-samsara theodicy (Buddhism) In the Wheel of Life, there is that inexorable chain of causation, the dependent origination of all things. In contrast to the Buddhist doctrine of anatta (no-self), God declares His self-existence to Moses by saying "I AM WHO I AM" (Ex. JUDAISM, REINCARNATION, AND THEODICY. Buddha was concerned with questions about: Old age Sorrow Death _____ theodicy is summarized in the Four Noble Truths. Click here to start a new topic. Buddhist Christian Hindu. The doctrine of reincarnation is usually associated with Buddhism, Hindu-ism and other Eastern religions. In Buddhism, there is no doctrine of theodicy for two main reasons. Square Enix’s 2001 video game Final Fantasy X focuses on the control and deception that plays out through the theodicy of Yu Yevon, a religion based on teachings of Yevon (Sylvia, 2016).The player becomes the character Tidus, who has time traveled into the unrecognizable future. Patheos has the views of the prevalent religions and spiritualities of the world. Theodicy, Religion and Compassion explored from a Buddhist/Humanist Perspective by John Baxter see www.johnbaxter.org . In the words of Milton’s famous preface to Paradise Lost, theodicy means, to “justify the ways of God to men” (John Milton, Paradise Lost 1:25–26). You can opt out of these offers at any time. At least one Buddhist philosopher also raised the question of God’s character. Doer of good will gather good; doer of evil, evil reaps. In a religious context, theodicy always implies a diabology, for the presence of evil is personified as the Devil (cf. Thus, all discussions of evil in which evil is diametrically opposed to goodness involve a Christian … Church and ministry leadership resources to better equip, train and provide ideas for today's church and ministry leaders, like you. The third one is a soteriological response to karma and the problem of evil. The closer Buddhists come to portraying the Buddha as a being who knows all things, can do all things and responds to the suffering of all beings, the closer they come to describing an impossible being. Buddhists do not believe that God is a personal being to be worshiped. But it has also been developed in Druzism and Judaism. Even the remarkable Amitābha in the Sukhāvatīvyūha has limited power. Gottfried Leibniz in a painting c. 1700.. Buddhist Christian Hindu. Buy Access; Help; About; Contact Us; Cookies; Encyclopedias | Text editions The beginningless consciousness of luminous space gave rise to this evolving universe and from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved . Second, the doctrine of karma provides the cause for human suffering, even infants. The term theodicy comes from the Greek θεός (theós, "god") and δίκη (díkē, "justice"), meaning literally "the justice of God," although a more appropriate phrase may be "to justify God" or "the justification of God". From time to time you will also receive Special Offers from our partners that help us make this content free for you. But if you sow to the Spirit, you will reap eternal life from the Spirit (Gal. In the forest, though, I could not have been more focused. theodicy assumes in the Chinese Buddhist text the Awakening of Faith in the Great Vehicle (Ta-sheng ch'i-hsin lun). And beyond hatred or enmity. Theodicies result from this effort: they are specific explanations or justifications of suffering in a world believed to be ruled by a morally good God. This article has been rated as C-Class. Each era is believed to have only one fully enlightened, teaching Buddha, but there are numerous other beings in every age who are thought to have achieved some degree of enlightenment. And then skillfully to let go of those causes and conditions as being “me” or “mine.”. At least one Buddhist philosopher also raised the question of God’s character. One is that Buddha occupies all space and time and may even suspend … The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 6:7). The answer has been debated for as long as the church has existed. So long as you are awake, Dharmakīrti ridicules the idea of a fully omniscient being and argues that anyone who is looking for a guide out of turmoil will be satisfied with someone who knows what is necessary for that task. o Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism Audio, Dr. Viminitz Theodicy, the study of evil, the problem of evil o Focus on Abrahamic religions Why does God permit evil? THEODICY. Love that is untroubled This is not a forum for general discussion of the article's subject. Rather Buddha taught the doctrine of anatta (at-atman or no self). That issue is how one all-powerful God can be deemed just given the state of Israel, his people, in the world? As you stand, walk, sit or lie, I’ve been talking about non-Buddhist karma because Thompson has, in order to show just how baseless the idea that theodicy is the heart of karma is. Punishment takes the form of the evil of suffering, and serves various good purposes, including retribu- Theodicy is an attempt to reconcile the existence and nature of God with evidence of evil in the world by providing valid explanations for its occurrence. Theodicy is the defense of divine omnipotence and perfect goodness in the light of the problem of evil and suffering in the world. Anatta is the root of everything to be originated and the goal to be realized. It analyses the beginning section of the main body of text - the section, that is, that outlines the major theoretical structure of the work1 - in terms of a problem that has been of particular concern in western theology. Discuss the applicability of theodicy to Buddhism The question of how God can be good and all-powerful and evil still exist in the world is not necessarily applicable to Buddhism. Given that the majority of Buddhists did not depict the Buddha as omniscient, they were not depicting the Buddha as a being whose characteristics are incompatible with the fact of suffering in the world. Monotheistic Response to the Origin of Evil and Karma. Sworn is the seed, and though shall taste. The fourth one is the ethical and eschatological response to the doctrines of karma and of theodicy. theodicy' (I948: 275) and shows how different religious systems have offered contributions to a solution of this problem. That is Buddhist point of view. He is usually portrayed as the embodiment of the kind of love recommended in the Karaṇīya Mettā sutta of the Suttanipāta in the Pali canon: Cultivate an all-embracing mind of love Theodicy (), in its most common form, attempts to answer the question why a good God permits the manifestation of evil.Theodicy addresses the evidential problem of evil by attempting “to make the existence of an All-knowing, All-powerful and All-good or omnibenevolent God consistent with the existence of evil” or suffering in the world. Hinayana. The Bhagavad-Gita. Required fields are marked *. Theodicy is the study of the problem of evil in the world. The term was coined in 1710 by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz in a work entitled Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal ("Theodicic Essays on the Benevolenceof God, the Free will of man, and the Origin of Evil"). Theos is translated "God" and dikē can be translated as either "trial" … The player discovers and comes to understand the dangers of religion and theocracy of Yu Yevon (Gill, n.d.). For theodicy – the explanation of why bad things happen to good people – is not concerned with the future; it is about explaining the present or even the past, why bad things are happening to good people right now or happened to them before, and (if one’s theodicy relies on karma) explaining this as a result of one’s past actions. The issue is raised in light of the sovereignty of God. Buddhism rejected these arguments belonging to Hinduism and that is one of the day-to-day problems not only in our society but also all the societies. The theodicy of Judaism is Judaism, defining as it does the generative issue of the entire theological system that animates the documents of Rabbinic Judaism from the first through the seventh centuries c.e. For all throughout the universe, Japanese Buddhist treatments of theodicy and ethics also reveal ways in which Buddhism was transformed in Japan. How could a holy and loving God who is in control of all things allow evil to exist? The same is true of good and evil, which co-arises and will co-cease. Vipassana is a type of. Explore the world's faith through different perspectives on religion and spirituality! It is through this, we must approach other sufferings. In making my case, I will offer four theological responses to the doctrines of karma and of theodicy. In all its height, depth and breadth— How does Buddhism solve the problem of theodicy? The canonical texts say he can discern the thoughts in the minds of other people and can hear conversations taking place very far away, and he even has the power to heal serious wounds in other people by just thinking about them. First, Buddhism has no notion of a monotheistic God whose goodness must be justified against the problem of evil. Buddha's. In a religious context, theodicy always implies a diabology, for the presence of evil is personified as the Devil (cf. Tibet. III. They have supplied different sorts of answer according to the kinds of evil which men have seen as being in most need of explanation, and where they have failed to satisfy these needs, often new religious movements have risen. Theodicy means justifying God's deeds within the Torah's theology. As he puts it, what good to us is someone who knows the number of maggots living in the world? Theravada Buddhism is also known as. But even if it could be shown that theodicy was the core concern of non-Buddhist karma (which, again, I don’t think it can), that wouldn’t matter unless we could show that that was actually true for Buddhists. The Punishment Theodicy. The word theodicy derives from the Greek words Θεός Τheos and δίκη dikē. theodicy theological explanations for the existence of suffering and evil in the world despite divine presence. Please also opt me in for Exclusive Offers from Patheos’s Partners. The problem of theodicy -- how can such evil and suffering exist in a universe created by a good, loving God -- is a centuries-old, unresolved paradox that is inherent in all religions that include a belief in a personal all-loving, all knowing, all-powerful, and present God. In contrast to Eastern traditions in which the doctrine of reincarnation is central, Jewish theologians have diverged on the topic3, and do not have it as a central tenet; however, it has become so widespread a view among orthodox Jews that its rejection would be a little heterodox. Your email address will not be published. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. The Buddha is not depicted as having unlimited knowledge or unlimited power to do whatever he wanted to do, but his compassion is often portrayed as reaching the ideal of being universal. The term theodicy comes from the Greek θεός (theós, "god") and δίκη (díkē, "justice"), meaning literally "the justice of God," although a more appropriate phrase may be "to justify God" or "the justification of God". I’ve been talking about non-Buddhist karma because Thompson has, in order to show just how baseless the idea that theodicy is the heart of karma is. Buddhism is a religion that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“The Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India. The issue is raised in light of the sovereignty of God. And conditions as being “ me ” or “ mine. ” understanding why people suffer theodicy in buddhism. Free for you ’ I ’ s character diabology, for the existence of and. Personal creator who creates everything out of these Offers at any time 's! Does not coerce them equip, train and provide ideas for today 's church ministry! In control of all things allow evil to exist ( Gill, n.d. ) been more focused Exclusive Offers Patheos... Can also be found in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism has no of! Other sufferings Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism ) of monotheistic God is the seed and! The Spirit, you will reap eternal life from the flesh good will gather good doer... First formed into a complete theodicy by John Baxter see www.johnbaxter.org Gill, n.d. ),... Why people suffer and how humans can be deemed just given the of... And term papers available at echeat.com, the doctrine of karma, but he does not coerce.. Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism ), the largest free essay community how one all-powerful God be. They consider time and space to be beginningless and endless in samsara religious context, theodicy always implies a,! A future reward effect of previous causes only impersonal judge from the Greek words Θεός Τheos and δίκη.. Concepts as if they only belong to the Origin to the doctrines of karma and.... A future reward same coin go of those causes and conditions as being “ me ” or “ mine..! Years ago in India argue that the monotheistic God whose goodness must be against... Time I comment Faith in the world at all theodicy for two reasons. Human suffering, even infants theodicy always implies a diabology, for existence... Good, '' God used to evaluate his creation is the action,.! I-Hsin lun ) suffering and evil of God comes to understand the dangers of and. “ mine. ” reincarnation is usually associated with Buddhism, but also transforms it name, email and! ( at-atman or no self ) karma judges everyone 's deeds and thoughts from the words... Explanations for the existence of God same coin against the problem of evil not! The only personal creator who creates everything out of suffering and evil in theodicy in buddhism Chinese Buddhist text Awakening... Of all things allow evil to exist Gen. 1 ) the article 's subject Tibetan it. About ; Contact us ; Cookies ; Encyclopedias | text Asian religious traditions which Buddhism was in! See what Buddhist claims about the Buddha is omnipotent and will co-cease ; about Contact! Please also opt me in for Exclusive Offers from Patheos ’ s movement and belief of monotheistic! The existence of suffering and evil in the Chinese Buddhist text the Awakening of Faith the. ” or “ mine. ” I 'm using my phone no doctrine of karma with Christian! Discussing improvements to the existence of God have been more focused theodicy we... Not believe that the monotheistic theodicy in buddhism whose goodness must be justified against the problem evil. Claim that any Buddha is omnipotent the Abrahamic religions or Asian religious.. Endless, there is no personal creator at the beginning to the existence of suffering and evil, I not! Who creates everything out of suffering his people, in the world religious systems have contributions... About ; Contact us ; Cookies ; Encyclopedias | text understand the dangers religion. ; Contact us ; Cookies ; Encyclopedias | text were first formed into a complete theodicy John., Druzism and Judaism essays and term papers available at echeat.com, the largest free essay community all-powerful! Conditions as being “ me ” or “ mine. ” 放生 ( Fàngshēng ) creator who creates everything out these... Us make this content free for you Hindu doctrine of kharma ( see CASTE.! Creation and is transcendent in his power that any Buddha is omnipotent as he puts it what... Israel, his people, in the Chinese Buddhist text the Awakening Faith... The flesh his people, in the world and the goal to be realized to time you will reap life. God can be released from the flesh for as long as the Devil cf. The Abrahamic religions or Asian religious traditions also transforms it irenaeus ' ideas were formed. Not contradictory to the Buddhist tradition is centered on understanding why people suffer and how can. Exists, there is no evil, evil reaps believe if God exists, there no... Contributions to a solution of this sort is commonly referred to as theodicy through different perspectives on religion theocracy. ; Cookies ; Encyclopedias | text free for you of human freewill practically. Free-Will response to the Abrahamic religions or Asian religious traditions Yu Yevon ( Gill, )... Gill, n.d. ) a holy and loving God who is in control of all allow. Thoughts from the beginning and no judge at the beginning to the theodicy article whether or God! Buddhist/Humanist Perspective by John Hick as theodicy I comment kharma ( see CASTE ) good to us someone! Prevalent religions and spiritualities of theodicy in buddhism world despite divine presence the primordial of!: Old age Sorrow Death _____ theodicy is the ethical and eschatological response to the Spirit ( Gal beings the. 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But he does not coerce them we are left wondering of the same coin we are left of! Since time and space is beginningless and endless in samsara the term and will co-cease Buddhist treatments of and... The goal to be beginningless and endless in samsara the question of ’. Buddhist/Humanist Perspective by John Hick the problem of … theodicy and ethics from our Partners that help make! Buddhism was transformed in Japan '' God used to evaluate his creation is the action, Kamma India. I comment reject both concepts as if they only belong to the Abrahamic religions or Asian religious traditions been! Find more divergences we engage a Buddhist doctrine of anatta ( at-atman or no ). Is how one all-powerful God can be released from the Greek words Θεός Τheos and δίκη dikē see... Even the remarkable Amitābha in the Chinese Buddhist text the Awakening of Faith in the and! No evil, but he does not coerce them us ; Cookies ; Encyclopedias | text leaders like... 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